man/man3/intro.3

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.\"     @(#)intro.3	8.1 (Berkeley) 6/5/93
.\"
.Dd June 5, 1993
.Dt INTRO 3
.Os
.Sh NAME
.Nm intro
.Nd introduction to the C libraries
.Sh SYNOPSIS
.Nm cc
.Op Ar flags
.Ar file ...
.Op Fl llibrary
.Sh DESCRIPTION
The manual pages in section 3 provide an overview of the C library
functions, their error returns, and other common definitions and concepts.
Most of these functions are available from the C library,
.Em libc .
Other libraries, such as the math library,
.Em libm ,
must be indicated at compile time with the
.Fl l
option of the compiler.
.Pp
The various libraries (followed by the loader flag):
.Pp
.Bl -tag -width "libkvm" -compact
.It libbfd Pq Fl lbfd
GNU binary file descriptor library.
Allows applications to operate on object files,
regardless of the object file format.
See
.Sq info bfd .
.Pp
.It libc Pq Fl lc
Standard C library functions.
When using the C compiler
.Xr cc 1 ,
it is not necessary to supply the loader flag
.Fl lc
for these functions.
There are several
.Dq libraries
or groups of functions included inside of libc: the standard
.Tn I/O
routines,
database routines,
bit operators,
string operators,
character tests and character operators,
DES encryption routines,
storage allocation,
time functions,
signal handling,
and more.
.Pp
.It libcompat Pq Fl lcompat
Functions which are obsolete but are available for compatibility with
.Bx 4.3 .
In particular, a number of system call interfaces provided in previous
releases of
.Bx
have been included for source code compatibility.
Use of these routines should, for the most part, be avoided.
The manual page entry for each compatibility routine
indicates the proper interface to use.
.Pp
.It libcrypto Pq Fl lcrypto
The OpenSSL crypto library.
Implements a range of cryptographic algorithms,
providing such functionality as symmetric encryption, public key cryptography,
and certificate handling.
See
.Xr crypto 3 .
.Pp
.It libcurses Pq Fl lcurses
.It libncurses Pq Fl lncurses
.It libtermcap Pq Fl ltermcap
.It libtermlib Pq Fl ltermlib
Terminal-independent screen management routines for two-dimensional
non-bitmap display terminals.
This implementation is
.Dq new curses
and is a replacement for
.Bx 4.2
classic curses.
The libraries
.Em libncurses ,
.Em libtermcap ,
and
.Em libtermlib
are all hard links to
.Em libcurses .
This is for compatibility purposes only;
new programs should link with
.Fl lcurses .
See
.Xr curses 3
and
.Xr termcap 3 .
.Pp
.It libcurses++ Pq Fl lcurses++
C++ interface to ncurses routines.
See
.Xr curses 3 .
.Pp
.It libdes Pq Fl ldes
Implementation of the
.Tn DES
encryption algorithm.
See
.Xr des_crypt 3 .
.Pp
.It libedit Pq Fl ledit
Generic line editing and history functions, similar to those found in
.Xr sh 1 .
Functions using the
.Em libedit
library must be linked with the
.Em libcurses
library, i.e.\&
.Fl ledit lcurses .
See
.Xr editline 3 .
.Pp
.It libevent Pq Fl levent
Provides a mechanism to execute a function when a specific event on a
file descriptor occurs or after a given time has passed.
See
.Xr event 3 .
.Pp
.It libform Pq Fl lform
Terminal-independent facilities for composing form screens on
character-cell terminals.
Functions using the
.Em libform
library must be linked with the
.Em libcurses
library, i.e.\&
.Fl lform lcurses .
See
.Xr form 3 .
.Pp
.It libfrtbegin Pq Fl lfrtbegin
.It libg2c Pq Fl lg2c
Support routines for Fortran functions.
These two libraries were separated to allow linking Fortran code
with other languages on ELF platforms.
See
.Xr g77 1 .
.Pp
.It libgssapi Pq Fl lgssapi
The Generic Security Service Application Program Interface
.Pq GSS-API
provides security services to callers in a generic fashion.
.\" See
.\" .Xr gssapi 3 .
.Pp
.It libiberty Pq Fl liberty
Collection of subroutines missing in other operating systems,
as well as the C++ demangler and other functions used by
the GNU toolchain.
.Pp
.It libkadm5clnt Pq Fl lkadm5clnt
Kerberos administration client library,
for talking to a Kerberos database.
Clients communicate via the network.
.Pp
.It libkadm5srv Pq Fl lkadm5srv
Kerberos administration server library,
for talking to a Kerberos database.
Servers talk directly to the database.
.Pp
.It libkeynote Pq Fl lkeynote
System library for the keynote trust-management system.
Trust-management systems provide standard, general-purpose mechanisms
for specifying application security policies and credentials.
Functions using the libkeynote library must be linked with the
.Em libm
and
.Em libcrypto
libraries, i.e.\&
.Fl lkeynote lm lcrypto .
See
.Xr keynote 3
and
.Xr keynote 4 .
.Pp
.It libkrb5 Pq Fl lkrb5
.It libasn1 Pq Fl lasn1
.It libcom_err Pq Fl lcom_err
.It libhdb Pq Fl lhdb
.It libkafs Pq Fl lkafs
Kerberos 5 libraries.
The libraries
.Em libasn1 ,
.Em libcom_err ,
.Em libhdb ,
and
.Em libkafs
are all hard links to
.Em libkrb5 .
See
.Sq info heimdal .
.Pp
.It libkvm Pq Fl lkvm
Kernel memory interface library.
Provides a uniform interface for accessing kernel virtual memory images,
including live systems and crash dumps.
See
.Xr kvm 3 .
.Pp
.It libl Pq Fl l\&l
.It libfl Pq Fl lfl
The library for
.Xr lex 1 ,
a lexical analyzer generator.
The
.Em libfl
library
is a hard link to
.Em libl .
.Pp
.It libm Pq Fl lm
Mathematical functions which comprise the C math library,
.Em libm .
See
.Xr math 3 .
.Pp
.It libmenu Pq Fl lmenu
Terminal-independent facilities for composing menu systems on
character-cell terminals.
Functions using the
.Em libmenu
library must be linked with the
.Em libcurses
library, i.e.\&
.Fl lmenu lcurses .
See
.Xr menu 3 .
.Pp
.It libmmalloc Pq Fl lmmalloc
GNU memory-mapped malloc package.
In this implementation,
.Xr mmap 2
is used to obtain memory from the system,
rather than
.Xr sbrk 2 .
See
.Sq info mmalloc .
.Pp
.It libobjc Pq Fl lobjc
Library for Objective C, an object-oriented superset of ANSI C.
Use this to compile Objective C programs.
.Pp
.It libocurses Pq Fl locurses
.It libotermcap Pq Fl lotermcap
Routines to provide the user with a method of updating screens
with reasonable optimisation.
The
.Xr ocurses 3
library is compatible with the
.Em curses
library provided in 4.3.
.Em libotermcap
is the 4.3-compatible
.Em termcap
library, and is a hard link to
.Em libocurses .
See
.Xr otermcap 3 .
.Pp
.It libopcodes Pq Fl lopcodes
GNU opcode library.
.Pp
.It libossaudio Pq Fl lossaudio
Provides an emulation of the OSS
.Pq Linux
audio interface.
This is used only for porting programs.
See
.Xr ossaudio 3 .
.Pp
.It libpanel Pq Fl lpanel
Terminal-independent facilities for stacked windows on
character-cell terminals.
Functions using the
.Em libpanel
library must be linked with the
.Em libcurses
library, i.e.\&
.Fl lpanel lcurses .
See
.Xr panel 3 .
.Pp
.It libpcap Pq Fl lpcap
Packet capture library.
All packets on the network, even those destined for other hosts,
are accessible through this library.
See
.Xr pcap 3 .
.Pp
.It libperl Pq Fl lperl
Support routines for
.Xr perl 1 .
.Pp
.It libpthread Pq Fl pthread
.St -p1003.1-01
threads API and thread scheduler.
Threaded applications should use
.Fl pthread
not
.Fl lpthread .
See
.Xr pthreads 3 .
.Pp
.It libreadline Pq Fl lreadline
Command line editing interface.
See
.Xr readline 3 .
.Pp
.It libresolv Pq Fl lresolv
The
.Xr resolver 3
routines are included in
.Em libc .
This is just an empty library for legacy applications that want to link with
.Fl lresolv .
.Pp
.It librpcsvc Pq Fl lrpcsvc
Generated by
.Xr rpcgen 1 ,
containing stub functions for many common
.Xr rpc 3
protocols.
.Pp
.It libsectok Pq Fl lsectok
Library for communicating with ISO 7816 smartcards.
See
.Xr sectok 3 .
.Pp
.It libskey Pq Fl lskey
Support library for the S/Key one time password
.Pq OTP
authentication toolkit.
See
.Xr skey 3 .
.Pp
.It libssl Pq Fl lssl
The OpenSSL ssl library implements the Secure Sockets Layer
.Pq SSL v2/v3
and Transport Layer Security
.Pq TLS \&v1
protocols.
See
.Xr ssl 3 .
.Pp
.It libstdc++ Pq Fl lstdc++
GCC subroutine library for C++.
See
.Xr c++ 1 .
.Pp
.It libusbhid Pq Fl lusbhid
Routines to extract data from USB Human Interface Devices
.Pq HIDs .
See
.Xr usbhid 3 .
.Pp
.It libutil Pq Fl lutil
System utility functions.
These are currently
.Xr check_expire 3 ,
.Xr fmt_scaled 3 ,
.Xr fparseln 3 ,
.Xr getmaxpartitions 3 ,
.Xr getrawpartition 3 ,
.Xr login 3 ,
.Xr login_fbtab 3 ,
.Xr opendev 3 ,
.Xr opendisk 3 ,
.Xr openpty 3 ,
.Xr pidfile 3 ,
.Xr pw_getconf 3 ,
.Xr pw_init 3 ,
.Xr pw_lock 3 ,
.Xr readlabelfs 3
and
.Xr uucplock 3 .
.Pp
.It libwrap Pq Fl lwrap
TCP wrapper access control library.
See
.Xr hosts_access 3
and
.Xr rfc1413 3 .
.Pp
.It liby Pq Fl ly
The library for
.Xr yacc 1 ,
an LALR parser generator.
.Pp
.It libz Pq Fl lz
General purpose data compression library.
The functions in this library are documented in
.Xr compress 3 .
The data format is described in RFCs 1950 \- 1952.
.El
.Pp
Platform-specific libraries:
.Pp
.Bl -tag -width "libkvm" -compact
.It libalpha Pq Fl lalpha
Alpha I/O and memory access functions.
See
.Xr inb 2 .
.Pp
.It libi386 Pq Fl li386
i386 I/O and memory access functions.
See
.Xr i386_get_ioperm 2 ,
.Xr i386_set_ioperm 2 ,
.Xr i386_get_ldt 2 ,
.Xr i386_set_ldt 2 ,
.Xr i386_iopl 2 ,
and
.Xr i386_vm86 2 .
.El
.Sh LIBRARY TYPES
The system libraries are located in
.Pa /usr/lib .
Typically, a library will have a number of variants:
.Bd -unfilled -offset indent
libc.a
libc.so.30.1
libc_p.a
libc_pic.a
.Ed
.Pp
Libraries with an
.Sq .a
suffix are static.
When a program is linked against a library, all the library code
will be linked into the binary.
This means the binary can be run even when the libraries are unavailable.
However, it can be inefficient with memory usage.
The C compiler,
.Xr cc 1 ,
can be instructed to link statically by specifying the
.Fl static
flag.
.Pp
Libraries with a
.Sq .so.X.Y
suffix are dynamic libraries.
When code is compiled dynamically, the library code that the application needs
is not linked into the binary.
Instead, data structures are added containing information about which dynamic
libraries to link with.
When the binary is executed, the run-time linker
.Xr ld.so 1
reads these data structures, and loads them at a virtual address using the
.Xr mmap 2
system call.
.Pp
.Sq X
represents the major number of the library, and
.Sq Y
represents the minor number.
In general, a binary will be able to use a dynamic library with a differing
minor number, but the major numbers must match.
In the example above, a binary linked with minor number
.Sq 3
would be linkable against libc.so.30.1,
while a binary linked with major number
.Sq 31
would not.
.Pp
The advantages of dynamic libraries are that multiple instances of the same
program can share address space, and the physical size of the binary is
smaller.
The disadvantage is the added complexity that comes with loading the
libraries dynamically, and the extra time taken to load the libraries.
Of course, if the libraries are not available, the binary will be unable
to execute.
The C compiler,
.Xr cc 1 ,
can be instructed to link dynamically by specifying the
.Fl shared
flag, although on systems that support it, this will be the default and
need not be specified.
.Pp
Libraries with a
.Sq _p.a
suffix are profiling libraries.
They contain extra information suitable for analysing programs,
such as execution speed and call counts.
This in turn can be interpreted by utilities such as
.Xr gprof 1 .
The C compiler,
.Xr cc 1 ,
can be instructed to generate profiling code,
or to link with profiling libraries, by specifying the
.Fl pg
flag.
.Pp
Libraries with a
.Sq _pic.a
suffix contain position-independent code
.Pq PIC .
Normally, compilers produce relocatable code.
Relocatable code needs to be modified at run-time, depending on where in
memory it is to be run.
PIC code does not need to be modified at run-time, but is less efficient than
relocatable code.
PIC code is used by shared libraries, which can make them slower.
The C compiler,
.Xr cc 1 ,
can be instructed to generate PIC code,
or to link with PIC libraries, by specifying the
.Fl fpic
or
.Fl fPIC
flags.
.Pp
With the exception of dynamic libraries, libraries are generated using the
.Xr ar 1
utility.
The libraries contain an index to the contents of the library,
stored within the library itself.
The index lists each symbol defined by a member of a library that is a
relocatable object file.
This speeds up linking to the library, and allows routines in the library
to call each other regardless of their placement within the library.
The index is created by
.Xr ranlib 1
and can be viewed using
.Xr nm 1 .
.Pp
The building of PIC versions of libraries and dynamic libraries can be
prevented by setting the variable
.Dv NOPIC
in
.Pa /etc/mk.conf .
The building of profiling versions of libraries and/or dynamic libraries can
be prevented by setting the variable
.Dv NOPROFILE
in
.Pa /etc/mk.conf .
See
.Xr mk.conf 5
for more details.
.Sh FILES
.Bl -tag -width /usr/lib/libotermcap.a -compact
.It Pa /usr/lib/libasn1.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libbfd.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libc.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libcom_err.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libcompat.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libcrypto.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libcurses++.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libcurses.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libdes.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libedit.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libevent.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libfl.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libform.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libfrtbegin.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libg2c.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libgssapi.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libhdb.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libiberty.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libkadm5clnt.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libkadm5srv.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libkafs.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libkeynote.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libkrb5.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libkvm.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libl.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libm.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libmenu.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libmmalloc.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libncurses.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libobjc.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libocurses.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libopcodes.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libossaudio.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libotermcap.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libpanel.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libpcap.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libperl.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libpthread.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libreadline.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libresolv.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/librpcsvc.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libsectok.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libskey.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libssl.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libstdc++.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libtermcap.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libtermlib.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libusbhid.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libutil.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libwrap.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/liby.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libz.a
.Pp
.It Pa /usr/lib/libalpha.a
.It Pa /usr/lib/libi386.a
.El
.Sh SEE ALSO
.Xr ar 1 ,
.Xr c++ 1 ,
.Xr cc 1 ,
.Xr g77 1 ,
.Xr gprof 1 ,
.Xr ld 1 ,
.Xr ld.so 1 ,
.Xr lex 1 ,
.Xr nm 1 ,
.Xr perl 1 ,
.Xr ranlib 1 ,
.Xr yacc 1 ,
.Xr intro 2 ,
.Xr compress 3 ,
.Xr crypto 3 ,
.Xr curses 3 ,
.Xr des_crypt 3 ,
.Xr editline 3 ,
.Xr event 3 ,
.Xr form 3 ,
.Xr hosts_access 3 ,
.Xr keynote 3 ,
.Xr kvm 3 ,
.Xr math 3 ,
.Xr menu 3 ,
.Xr ocurses 3 ,
.Xr ossaudio 3 ,
.Xr panel 3 ,
.Xr pcap 3 ,
.Xr pthreads 3 ,
.Xr readline 3 ,
.Xr resolver 3 ,
.Xr rfc1413 3 ,
.Xr rpc 3 ,
.Xr sectok 3 ,
.Xr skey 3 ,
.Xr ssl 3 ,
.Xr stdio 3 ,
.Xr termcap 3 ,
.Xr usbhid 3 ,
.Xr keynote 4 ,
.Xr mk.conf 5
.Sh HISTORY
An
.Nm
manual appeared in
.At v7 .